The United States has used two phrases with a prominent national role. E Pluribus Unum—commonly translated as “out of many, one”—appears on the Great Seal. In God We Trust began appearing on coins during the Civil War era and became the statutory national motto in 1956.
The earlier motto: E Pluribus Unum
Congress began developing the Great Seal on 4 July 1776. An early committee included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. Several proposals were considered before Congress accepted the final design on 20 June 1782.
The adopted seal features an eagle carrying arrows and an olive branch, with E Pluribus Unum on a scroll. The expression describes unity formed from multiple parts—first colonies and later states. The seal entered official use in September 1782, and the phrase subsequently appeared on federal coins.
The adoption of In God We Trust
The wording has a connection to the final stanza of Francis Scott Key’s 1814 composition that later became the national anthem. That stanza proposed trust in God as a national theme. The familiar shorter wording was selected for coinage several decades later.
During the Civil War, religious advocates asked the Treasury to place a reference to God on U.S. money. Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase directed Mint officials to develop suitable wording. Congress authorized a change, and In God We Trust appeared on the two-cent coin in 1864.
A date clarification
The enabling legislation for the first coin inscription was approved on 22 April 1864, not 1886. Later statutes broadened the motto’s use. It has appeared continuously on the one-cent coin since 1909 and the ten-cent coin since 1916.
Theodore Roosevelt objected to routine use of the phrase on money. In correspondence from 1907, he argued that placing sacred language on everyday commercial objects could diminish rather than honor it. His position was about reverence, not opposition to religion.
Cold War context and federal policy
Federal religious language expanded during the 1950s amid tension with officially atheistic communist governments. Congress added “under God” to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954. In 1956, Congress adopted In God We Trust as the national motto, and the measure was signed into law on 30 July.
The motto first appeared on U.S. paper currency in 1957 and was extended across denominations during the following decade. This political context sometimes encouraged an inaccurate association between atheism and communism. Atheism is a position concerning belief in deities; it does not prescribe one political or economic system. Humanism likewise encompasses varied civic and political views.
Related federal practices include optional religious wording in some oaths. Officeholders who object may use an affirmation, and judges are not required to add a religious phrase. For broader context, see the discussion of oaths of office.
Is the motto constitutional?
Critics argue that In God We Trust favors theistic belief over non-theistic worldviews and traditions that understand divinity differently. They connect that concern to the constitutional principle of separation of church and state. The phrase may not reflect the beliefs of many agnostics, atheists, Buddhists, Hindus, Wiccans, other Neopagans, and members of other communities.
Federal appellate courts, however, have repeatedly rejected constitutional challenges. Their decisions have treated the motto as a ceremonial or patriotic expression rather than governmental establishment of a religious exercise.
Aronow v. United States (1970)
The Ninth Circuit characterized the motto’s role on currency as ceremonial and patriotic and concluded that it did not amount to government sponsorship of religious practice.
O’Hair v. Blumenthal (1979)
The Fifth Circuit upheld dismissal of a challenge, accepting the view that the inscription served a secular ceremonial purpose in the government’s production of currency.
Freedom From Religion Foundation litigation
A later challenge was dismissed, and the Tenth Circuit concluded that an informed reasonable observer would not understand the phrase on currency as governmental endorsement of religion.
The Supreme Court declined to review these particular rulings. In other decisions, it has referred to the motto and the pledge as examples that prior opinions did not treat as unconstitutional endorsements. These passing observations are not the same as a full Supreme Court ruling focused solely on the motto, but the appellate decisions remain important precedent.
Later congressional reaffirmation
Congress has reaffirmed the motto in later measures, including legislation in 2002 addressing the national motto and the Pledge of Allegiance. Supporters presented these measures as confirmation of longstanding civic usage. Critics continued to argue that ceremonial repetition does not eliminate the phrase’s religious meaning.
Reading the issue carefully
Two questions should be distinguished: whether a phrase carries religious meaning for ordinary listeners, and whether courts classify its governmental use as an unconstitutional establishment of religion. The historical record shows substantial disagreement on the first question; federal courts have generally answered the second in the negative.
Source and archive note
This revised archive overview draws on the historical records discussed in the original essay, including U.S. Treasury accounts of the motto, congressional enactments, federal appellate decisions, Great Seal history, and contemporaneous correspondence. Historical speech, judicial language and source material have been paraphrased for clarity. Readers conducting legal research should consult current statutes, official court reports and qualified legal guidance.