Independent educational reading about belief, conscience and coexistence
Religious Tolerance
Research skills

Make online sources easier to find and trust.

A clear guide to citing web pages, digital essays and e-books in common academic styles, with examples designed for careful educational reading.

Open notebook and laptop used for research
Citation guide

Internet citations and digital sources

Printed works have long-established citation practices. Online material changes more often and may not provide a clear author, publication date, page number or publisher. A useful citation therefore records enough information for another reader to identify the source and understand when it was consulted.

Styles differ in punctuation and ordering. If a teacher, editor or institution specifies a style, follow that guide first. The examples below are a practical orientation rather than a replacement for the current official manual.

Record these details while reading

Note the author or responsible organization, page title, title of the larger site, publication or revision date, stable URL, and your access date. If a detail is unavailable, use the convention required by your chosen style rather than guessing.

Common styles

APA

APA generally emphasizes the author and date, followed by the page title, site name and URL. Use “n.d.” when no date is available if that is the convention required by your edition of the manual.

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of page. Site Name. URL

Chicago

Chicago notes and bibliography style may use a note or a bibliography entry. Include the page title, site name, publication or revision date when available, and the URL.

Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Page,” Site Name, Month Day, Year, URL.

CSE

CSE references commonly identify the author, title, medium, site or publisher, date, date cited and availability information. Follow the documentation system selected by your course or publication.

Author. Title of page [Internet]. Site name; publication date [cited access date]. Available from: URL

Harvard

Harvard variants usually place the author and year near the beginning, then identify the online format, source and access date.

AUTHOR, Initials., Year. Title [online]. Site name. Available from: URL [Accessed Day Month Year].

MHRA

MHRA entries typically give the author, page title, larger work or site, date, URL and the date accessed.

Author, ‘Title of Page’, Site Name, date, URL [accessed date].

MLA

MLA commonly identifies the author, page title, site title, publisher or sponsor, publication date, URL and access date. The exact order depends on the current edition.

Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Page.” Site Name, date, URL. Accessed date.

ISO 690

ISO 690 records responsibility, title, medium, publication or revision information, citation date and availability. Use the version adopted by your institution.

AUTHOR. Title [online]. Place: Publisher, date [viewed date]. Available from: URL

E-books and missing page numbers

Digital editions may use locations, chapters or sections instead of printed page numbers. Identify the edition or platform when it affects how another reader can locate the passage. A DOI is usually preferable to a changing download address when one is supplied.

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book [Digital edition]. Publisher. DOI or stable URL

Keep dates unambiguous

Write the month in words or use a consistent year-month-day convention. This avoids confusion between day-month and month-day formats. For pages that change frequently, the access date is especially useful.

Reader guide

Questions about citations

Which citation style should I use?

Use the style named by your school, publisher, department or instructor. When no style is specified, choose one consistently and explain any unusual decisions.

What if a web page has no author?

Check whether an organization is responsible for the page. If no responsible author can be established, begin with the title or use the rule prescribed by the selected style.

What if there is no publication date?

Do not invent one. Use the no-date convention required by your style and include an access date where appropriate.

Do I need an access date?

Many styles recommend it for undated or changeable online material. It is also useful when a page may be revised after you read it.

How do I cite an online essay from this site?

Record the essay title, the responsible site name, its publication or revision date when shown, the page URL and your access date. Apply the style required for your work.

Can I ask about a citation problem?

Use the contact page for questions about this archive or to report a page detail that needs correction.